Using the simile of an elephant’s footprint, the Buddha illustrates how confidence in him develops gradually through practice. A noble disciple trains in conduct, sense restraint, contentment, and mindfulness, progressing through the jhānas. Unshakable confidence in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Saṅgha arises through direct knowledge and liberation.

Upon seeing a form with the eye, he does not |grasp at its prominent features::focusing on its external characteristics [nimittaggāhī]| nor is |enticed by the details::focusing on the secondary characteristics [anubyañjanaggāhī]|. Since if he were to dwell with the eye faculty unguarded, |unwholesome::unhealthy, unskillful, unbeneficial, or karmically unprofitable [akusala]| states of |craving and distress::greediness and dissatisfaction, wanting and unhappiness, craving and aversion [abhijjhā + domanassa]| might invade him. Therefore, he undertakes the restraint of the eye faculty, he guards the eye faculty, and he achieves restraint over the eye faculty. Upon hearing a sound with the ear ... upon smelling an odor with the nose ... upon tasting a flavor with the tongue ... upon touching a tangible object with the body ... upon cognizing a |mental object::a mind object such as a thought, idea, memory, intention, emotion, image, or concept arising within the mind that becomes the object of awareness, reflection, craving, or aversion [dhamma]| with the mind, he does not grasp at its prominent features nor is enticed by the details. Since if he were to dwell with the mind faculty unguarded, unwholesome states of craving and distress might invade him. Therefore, he undertakes the restraint of the mind faculty, he guards the mind faculty, and he achieves restraint over the mind faculty. Endowed with this noble aggregate of restraint of the senses, he personally experiences blameless happiness within.

A person endowed with the two qualities of guarding the sense doors and moderation in eating lives happily in this very life and after death, a good destination is expected.

“Bhikkhus, a bhikkhu endowed with two qualities lives |contented::easily, comfortably, pleasantly [sukhaṃ]| in this very life, without distress, without trouble, without burning [passion]; and upon the breaking up of the body, after death, a good destination is expected. What two? |Guarding of the sense doors::controlled in senses, having self-restraint [guttadvāratā]| and |moderation::knowing the limit [mattaññū]| in eating. Endowed with these two qualities, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu lives contented in this very life, without distress, without trouble, without burning [passion]; and upon the breaking up of the body, after death, a good destination is expected.”

The Buddha uses a simile of a cat and a mouse to illustrate how not setting up mindfulness and being unrestrained in the sense faculties can lead to death or deadly suffering.

So too, bhikkhus, here some bhikkhu dresses in the morning and, taking alms bowl and outer robe, enters a village or town for alms with body |unguarded::unprotected [arakkhita]|, speech unguarded, and mind unguarded, without setting up |mindfulness::full awareness and recollection of the body, feelings, mind, and mental qualities, observing them clearly with sustained attention, free from craving and distress [sati]|, |unrestrained::uncontrolled [asaṃvuta]| in his sense faculties. There he sees a woman who is scantily clothed or improperly covered. On seeing the woman who is scantily clothed or improperly covered, |lust::passion, infatuation, desire [rāga]| invades his mind. With his mind invaded by lust, he meets death or deadly suffering.

A person endowed with the two qualities of guarding the sense doors and moderation in eating lives with discontentedness in this very life and after death, a bad destination is expected.

“Bhikkhus, a bhikkhu endowed with two qualities lives in discontentment in this very life, with distress, with trouble, with burning [passion]; and upon the breaking up of the body, after death, a bad destination is expected. What two? |Lack of guarding of the sense doors::uncontrolled in senses, not having self-restraint [aguttadvāratā]|, and |lack of moderation::not knowing the limit [amattaññū]| in eating. Endowed with these two qualities, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu lives in discontentment in this very life, with distress, with trouble, with burning [passion]; and upon the breaking up of the body, after death, a bad destination is expected.”

The wanderer Māgaṇḍiya holds the view that sensual indulgence is spiritual growth and harshly criticizes the Buddha for teaching sense restraint, calling him a destroyer of spiritual growth. The Buddha skilfully reveals the true nature of sensual pleasures through vivid similes such as a leper finding relief by scorching himself over burning coals and a blind man mistaking a filthy rag for a spotless white cloth.

“What an |inauspicious sight::bad omen [duddiṭṭha]|, sir Bhāradvāja, we have seen! An inauspicious sight indeed. That we should have seen the bed of that so-called ascetic Gotama, that |destroyer of spiritual growth::Per MA, Māgaṇḍiya held the view that spiritual growth should be accomplished in the six senses by experiencing whatever sense objects one had not yet experienced, without clinging to the familiar. His view seems close to the contemporary attitude that intensity and variety of experience is the ultimate good and should be pursued without inhibitions or restrictions. And due to holding on to this view, he regarded the Buddha as someone who was ‘killing’ the spiritual development of learned Brahmins who trained in his Dhamma, which is based on renunciation of sensual pleasures [bhūnahu]|!”

Dhammapada verses 360–382 depict the ideal bhikkhu as one who restrains the senses, body, speech, and mind, leading to freedom from suffering. Emphasis is placed on mindfulness, inner joy, collectedness, and self-reliance. Through discipline and reflection, the bhikkhu advances towards the peace of Nibbāna, shining like the moon freed from clouds.

Restraint with the eye is good, good is restraint by the ear; Restraint with the nose is good, good is restraint by the tongue.

The spiritual life is not lived for the purpose of deceiving people, nor for the purpose of winning favor with people, nor for the sake of acquisitions, respect, and popularity, nor for the thought ‘Let people know me.’ But rather, this spiritual life is lived for the purpose of restraint and for the purpose of letting go.

“Bhikkhus, this spiritual life is not lived for the purpose of deceiving people, nor for the purpose of winning favor with people, nor for the sake of |acquisitions::gain, money, profit, possessions [lābhā]|, |respect::honor, accolade, reverence [sakkāra]|, and |popularity::fame, praise [siloka]|, nor for the thought ‘Let people know me.’ But rather, bhikkhus, this spiritual life is lived |for the purpose of restraint::for the sake of self-control, following of the precepts and sense-restraint [saṃvaratthaṃ]| and |for the purpose of letting go::for the sake of giving up [pahānattha]|.”

DhammaPada verses 1-20 share on the power of the mind in shaping one’s experiences, the importance of letting go of resentment and hostility, the consequences of living without restraint and moderation, the distinction between essence and non-essence, the sorrow and joy tied to one’s actions, the importance of acting according to the Dhamma, and who partakes in the true ascetic life.

Living perceiving as |attractive::beautiful [subha]|, |unrestrained::uncontrolled [asaṃvuta]| in the senses; Not knowing moderation in eating, |lazy::procrastinating, inactive person, indolent [kusīta]| and |weak in effort::low in energy, lacking in endurance [hīnavīriya]|; |Māra::embodiment of all forces that keeps beings trapped in the cycle of rebirth [māra]| overpowers that one, like the wind overpowers a weak tree.

The Buddha explains how to rein in the mind when desire, passion, aversion, illusion, or repulsion arises in regard to the six sense bases using the simile of a watchman and an ox and the simile of a lute.

So too, bhikkhus, the uninstructed ordinary person who acts without restraint over the |six sense bases::fields of experience, fields of sense impression [phassāyatana]| indulges themselves as much as they like in the five cords of sensual pleasure.

The Buddha explains how there is non-restraint and restraint with a simile of six animals with different domains and feeding grounds. He uses strong post or pillar as a designation for mindfulness directed to the body.

So too, bhikkhus, some bhikkhu here, gone to the village or the forest, meets someone who reproaches him thus: ‘This venerable one, acting in such a way, behaving in such a way, is a foul village thorn.’ Having understood him thus as a ‘thorn,’ one should understand |restraint::holding back [saṁvara]| and non-restraint.

The Buddha explains the cause for the restraint of all the taints and how there is abandoning of all the taints through the seven methods of seeing, restraint, proper use, enduring, avoiding, removing, and cultivation.

“Bhikkhus, I will explain to you the |cause for the restraint of all the taints::method on the restraint of all the effluents [sabbāsavasaṃvarapariyāya]|. Listen to this and pay close attention, I will speak.”

Dhammapada verses 235-255 emphasize on the urgency of striving swiftly, not being negligent, discerning gradually, stains of various qualities. A contrast is drawn on the lives of one who is shameless and one with a sense of right and wrong, on finding the faults of others and one’s own, and on the path of the Tathāgatas.

Easy is the life of one who is |shameless::lacking sense of right and wrong, without conscience [ahirika]|, brazen as a crow, destructive; |Audacious::forward [pakkhandī]|, |brash::impudent [pagabbha]|, |defiled::tainted, corrupted [saṅkiliṭṭha]| in livelihood.

Dhammapada verses 273–289 emphasize the eightfold path as the foremost way to liberation, seeing the impermanent, unsatisfactory, and not-self nature of all things. Further, the verses mention the relation of meditation and wisdom, They mention restraint, how wisdom through meditation, on cutting off the forest as well as the undergrowth, and making swift effort to purify by the way of practice leading to Nibbāna.

'Here I will dwell during the rains, here during winter and summer;' thus the |immature person::lacking in discernment or good sense, child-like in understanding [bāla]| thinks, not understanding the danger.

The Buddha distinguishes pleasant abidings in the here and now from the way of effacement leading upwards to complete quenching. Effacement is shown as the gradual chipping away of defilements through restraint, cultivation of the noble eightfold path, and diligent training, culminating in the complete freedom of Nibbāna.

38. ‘Others could be |lacking sense of right and wrong::shamelessness, lacking conscience [ahirika]|; we shall be with a sense of right and wrong here’—effacement should be practiced thus.

Dhammapada verses 221-234 emphasize abandoning anger, conceit, and mental defilements while cultivating restraint in body, speech, and mind. The verses highlight overcoming harmful actions by giving and speaking truth, the inevitability of criticism, and the value of moral discipline. Those intent on Nibbāna, ever watchful, and well-restrained are beyond reproach and honored even by the gods.

One should abandon anger and renounce |conceit::self-view expressed as comparison—seeing oneself as superior, inferior, or equal; the persistent “I am” conceit (asmimāna) that underlies identification and fuels rebirth [māna]|, and break free from every |fetter::chain, bond, link, thing which binds [saṃyojana]|; For one unattached to |name and form::mentality and materiality—the integrated structure of mental capacities (intention, attention, contact, feeling, perception) and physical form that together constitute and sustain an individual being [nāmarūpa]|, owning nothing, |suffering::discomfort, unpleasantness, discontentment, dissatisfaction, stress, pain, disease, i.e. mild or intense suffering [dukkha]| does not follow.

Dhammapada verses 129-145 explore the themes of non-violence, the consequences of harmful actions, and the importance of self-discipline. Through metaphors of a broken gong, a well-trained horse, and skilled artisans, the verses emphasize that true purification comes not from external austerities but from inner restraint, mindfulness, and ethical conduct. The inevitability of death and the suffering caused by harming others are highlighted alongside the rewards of peace and wisdom for those who cultivate virtuous behavior.

A person restrained by a |sense of right and wrong::sense of shame, conscience, modesty [hirī]|, if such a one is found in the world; Who shies away from sleeping too much, is like a noble horse that is restrained by the whip.

The spiritual life is not lived for the purpose of deceiving people, nor for the purpose of winning favor with people, nor for the sake of acquisitions, respect and popularity, nor for the thought ‘Let people know me.’

“Bhikkhus, this spiritual life is not lived for the purpose of deceiving people, nor for the purpose of winning favor with people, nor for the sake of |acquisitions::gain, money, profit, possessions [lābha]|, respect, and popularity, nor for the thought ‘Let people know me.’ Rather, bhikkhus, this spiritual life is led |for the purpose of restraint::for the sake of self-control, following of the precepts and sense-restraint [saṃvaratthaṃ]|, |for the purpose of letting go::for the sake of giving up [pahānattha]|, |for the purpose of dispassion::for the sake of detachment [virāgattha]|, and |for the purpose of cessation::for the sake of ending [nirodhatthaṃ]|.

After the serpent king Mucalinda stands guard over the Buddha during a rainstorm, the Buddha utters a verse on the happiness found in seclusion, harmlessness toward living beings, the transcendence of sensual desire, and the relinquishment of the conceit ‘I am.’

“Pleasant is |seclusion::solitude, detachment [viveka]| for the content one, who has heard the |Dhamma::teachings of the Buddha that point to the nature of reality, the ultimate truth [dhamma]| and who sees; |Harmlessness::benevolence, kindness [abyāpajja]| is happiness in the world— restraint towards living beings.

The Buddha explains how the livelihood of subsisting on alms, although an extreme of livelihoods, is a sensible choice for those who hope to discern a complete end to the entire mass of suffering.

But even so, such a bhikkhu may still |have intense craving::be greedy, covetous, with yearning, desiring, mentally obsessed [abhijjhālu]|, filled |with intense lust::with strong desire [tibbasārāga]| for sensual pleasures, and |harboring ill will::having harmful intentions [paduṭṭhamanasaṅkappa]| |with a malicious mind::evil-minded, hateful [byāpannacitta]|. He may be |muddle-minded::forgetful, not mindful [muṭṭhassatī]|, |lacking clear awareness::inattentive [asampajāna]|, |distracted::with scattered attention, not collected, not well-composed [asamāhita]|, |with a wandering mind::with runaway thoughts, mentally out of control [vibbhantacitta]| and |with unrestrained faculties::with uncontrolled senses bases, having a vulgar mind [pākatindriya]|. Just as a |charred log::firewood log used for burning a funeral pyre [chavālāta]|, burnt at both ends and smeared with filth in the middle, is of no use either in the village or the forest; so too, bhikkhus, I say, is such a person: deprived of the |enjoyment of a lay person::household wealth and pleasures [gihibhoga]|, yet unable to fulfill the |goal of renunciation::goal of the ascetic life, epithet of Nibbāna [sāmaññattha]|.”

One who is fond of conceit cannot be tamed, nor can one who is uncollected attain sagehood. Dwelling with negligence, such a one would not cross beyond the realm of death.

“There is no |taming::discipline, restraint, self-control [dama]| here for one |fond of conceit::who likes comparing oneself, who is attached to self-praise [mānakāma]|, nor is there sagehood for the |distracted::with scattered attention, not collected, not well-composed [asamāhita]|; For one living |with negligence::inattentively, without care, without carefulness [pamatta]| in the forest, would not cross beyond the realm of death.

Dhammapada verses 290–305 share on the renunciation of lesser happiness for greater joy, mindfulness of the body, and applying effort to overcome defilements. Further, the verses highlight the harm of neglecting what should be done, consequence of imposing suffering on another, while praising recollection of the Buddha, Dhamma, and Saṅgha as well as the qualities of mindfulness, non-violence, and cultivation. The verses conclude with the benefits of solitude and the wilderness for those who are energetic and self-restrained.

Having slain |mother::this is a reference to craving [mātar]| and |father::this is a reference to conceit [pitar]|, and |two kings of the warrior class::this is a reference to eternalism and annihilationism [rāja + dve + khattiya]|; Having wiped out the |kingdom::this is a reference to sense organs and sense objects [raṭṭha]| along with its |treasurer::this is a reference to attachment and lust [sānucara]|, the brahmin proceeds |untroubled::undisturbed, calm, free from affliction [anīgha]|.

The Buddha’s serene conduct on an alms round catches the attention of King Bimbisāra. In the ensuing encounter, the king offers him wealth and royal pleasures, but the Buddha shares his insight on the drawbacks in sensual pleasures, his view of renunciation as security and where his mind delights in.

Walking on alms |uninterruptedly::without skipping houses or taking a break [sapadānaṃ]|, guarding the sense doors, well restrained; He soon filled his alms bowl, with |full awareness::clear comprehension [sampajāna]| and |mindfulness::full awareness and recollection of the body, feelings, mind, and mental qualities, observing them clearly with sustained attention, free from craving and distress [sati]|.

Venerable Mahāmoggallāna is sitting in meditation posture, aligning his body upright, and having set up mindfulness immersed in the body. The Blessed One sees this and expresses an inspired utterance.

“Established in the mindfulness immersed in the body, restrained in the six |sense bases::fields of sense impressions [phassāyatana]|; A bhikkhu who is continuously |collected::composed, settled [samāhita]|, can realize |Nibbāna::complete cooling, letting go of everything, deathless, freedom from calamity, the non-disintegrating [nibbāna]| for himself.”

DhammaPada verses 21-32 share the distinct path and outcomes of diligence and negligence. On seeing this clearly, the wise guard diligence like the most important wealth. One devoted to diligence burns away all fetters, is incapable of decline, and is near to Nibbāna.

By initiative and diligence, with |restraint::self-control [saṁyama]| and |discipline::taming [dama]|; The |wise one::who has good judgement [medhāvī]| should make an island, Which no flood can submerge.

Dhammapada verses 383–423 redefine ‘Brāhmaṇa’ (sage) by inner attainment, not birth or appearance. Through effort, a true sage cuts craving, understands reality, and realizes Nibbāna. Fearless, detached, pure, and restrained, they embody non-violence and patience. Free from defilements and attachments, having overcome suffering and rebirth, the sage achieves the ultimate goal, radiating wisdom and peace.

Whoever here has abandoned sense pleasures, and lives the wandering life as a homeless one; Finished with |sensual existence::existence in the realm of sensual desire [kāmabhava]|, him I call a true sage.

DhammaPada verses 33-43 share about the nature of the mind, the drawbacks of an untamed mind, and the benefits of protecting and restraining the mind. Those who restrain the mind will be freed from the shackles of death. Not even one’s own mother, father, or any other relatives can do as much good as a rightly oriented mind can.

The mind is |trembling::quivering, in agitation [phandana]|, |unsteady::wavering, fickle, inconsistent [capala]|, difficult to guard and hard to hold back; The wise one makes it |exact::upright [uju]|, like a |fletcher::arrow-maker [usukāra]| sharpens an arrow.

Dhammapada verses 116-128 share the importance of hastening to do good, restraining the mind from harm, the consequences of harm and good, the accumulation of evil and good, the importance of avoiding harmful actions, the consequences of harming a blameless person, the results of evil and good, and the inevitability of death.

One should hasten to do |good::what is beneficial, wholesome, skillful, meritorious [kalyāṇa]|, and restrain the mind from |harm::evil, wrong, worthless, bad [pāpaka]|; For when one is slow in doing good, the mind takes delight in harm.

The Buddha describes four perils that can be encountered by those who have gone forth into homelessness, drawing an analogy to the dangers faced when entering water. These perils are anger and |irritation::waves|, |gluttony::crocodiles|, sensual |pleasures::whirlpools|, and |lust::carnivorous fish|.

3 And what, bhikkhus, is the peril of whirlpools? Here, bhikkhus, a son of a good family has gone forth out of faith from the household life into homelessness with the thought: ‘I am immersed in birth, aging, and death; in sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, and despair; I am immersed in suffering, afflicted by suffering. Perhaps an ending of this entire mass of suffering can be discerned.’ Then, after he has thus gone forth, in the morning he dresses, takes his alms bowl and outer robe, and enters a village or town for alms, with body, speech, and mind unguarded, without having established |mindfulness::full awareness and recollection of the body, feelings, mind, and mental qualities, observing them clearly with sustained attention, free from craving and distress [sati]|, with his sense faculties |unrestrained::uncontrolled, unguarded [asaṁvuta]|. He sees a householder or a householder’s son there enjoying himself, indulging in and engaging with the five |objects of sensual pleasure::sensual stimulation [kāmaguṇa]|. He thinks to himself: ‘Formerly, when I was a layperson, I enjoyed myself, indulging and engaging with the five objects of sensual pleasure. My family has |wealth::possessions, property, riches [bhoga]|. I can enjoy that wealth and also do meritorious deeds. Let me now give up the training and return to the household life so that I can enjoy that wealth and also do meritorious deeds.’ So he gives up the training and returns to the household life. This, bhikkhus, is called a bhikkhu who has given up the training and returned to the household life because of the peril of whirlpools. The peril of whirlpools, bhikkhus, is a designation for the five objects of sensual pleasure. This is called the peril of whirlpools.

The Buddha defines the perfected person as one who is virtuous in conduct, devoted to the cultivation of the seven sets of qualities that lead to awakening, and possessing wisdom of the ending of suffering—complete in training and free from the mental defilements.

And how, bhikkhus, is a bhikkhu one of virtuous conduct? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu is ethical, lives restrained by the restraint of the |moral code of conduct::monastic code of discipline which promotes harmonious and pure conduct with others [pātimokkha]|, who knows how to behave and keep to suitable places, who sees danger even in the slightest fault, and undertakes the training by practicing the training rules. This is how, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu is one of virtuous conduct.

DhammaPada verses 179-196 describe the boundless and traceless nature of the Buddha, the teachings of all the Buddhas, rarity of a human birth, rarity of the arising of a Buddha, what is a safe refuge that leads to release from suffering, and the merit gained by ones who honor the Buddhas or their disciples.

|Not speaking ill::refraining from slander, not blaming others [anūpavāda]| of others, |not harming::not hurting, non-violence [anūpaghāta]| others, restraint according to the |moral code of conduct::monastic code of discipline which promotes harmonious and pure conduct with others [pātimokkha]|; Knowing |moderation in::knowing the correct amount of [mattaññutā]| eating, dwelling in secluded places; Dedication to the |higher mind::meditation, mental development, higher consciousness, [adhicitta]|, this is the teaching of the Buddhas.

The Buddha expresses an inspired utterance about the qualities of a person who falls under the sway of Māra and of one who overcomes all bad destinations.

Thus have I heard—At one time, the Blessed One was dwelling near |Kusinārā::Kushinagar, a present-day town in Uttar Pradesh, India, revered as the place where the Buddha attained Final Nibbāna. [kusinārā]| in the Sal Grove of the |Mallas::name of the people of Malla, Mallans; lit. wrestlers [mallā]|. Now at that time, a number of bhikkhus were dwelling in a forest hut not far from the Blessed One. They were |restless::agitated, unbalanced, confused about what is right and wrong [uddhata]|, |arrogant::conceited, haughty [unnaḷa]|, |unsteady::wavering, fickle, inconsistent [capala]|, |talkative::big-mouthed [mukhara]|, |chatty::with scattered speech [vikiṇṇavāca]|, |muddle-minded::forgetful, not mindful [muṭṭhassatī]|, |lacking clear awareness::inattentive [asampajāna]|, |distracted::with scattered attention, not collected, not well-composed [asamāhita]|, |with a wandering mind::with runaway thoughts, mentally out of control [vibbhantacitta]|, and |with unrestrained faculties::with uncontrolled senses bases, having a vulgar mind [pākatindriya]|.

The Buddha explains how acquisitions, respect, and popularity are vicious, bitter, and severe, obstructing the attainment of the unsurpassed safety from bondage, using a simile of turbulent winds high in the sky.

So too, bhikkhus, a certain bhikkhu here who is overwhelmed by acquisitions, respect, and popularity, with his mind consumed by them, dresses in the morning, takes his alms bowl and outer robe, and enters a village or town for alms with body |unguarded::unprotected [arakkhita]|, speech unguarded, and mind unguarded, without setting up |mindfulness::full awareness and recollection of the body, feelings, mind, and mental qualities, observing them clearly with sustained attention, free from craving and distress [sati]|, |unrestrained::uncontrolled [asaṃvuta]| in his sense faculties. There he sees a woman who is scantily clothed or improperly covered. On seeing the woman who is scantily clothed or improperly covered, |lust::passion, infatuation, desire [rāga]| invades his mind. With his mind invaded by lust, he gives up the training and returns to the household life. Then some take his robe, others his bowl, others his sitting cloth, and still others his sewing kit, as with the bird that is thrown about by the turbulent winds.

A lay disciple asks the Buddha why greed, aversion, and illusion still occupy and remain in his mind. The Buddha explains the importance of cultivating discernment of the gratification, drawback, and escape in the case of sensual pleasures along with cultivating the joy and happiness apart from sensual pleasures. He then recounts a conversation with the Nigaṇṭhas on this topic.

Once, Mahānāma, I was dwelling at Rājagaha on Vulture Peak mountain. At that time, a number of |Nigaṇṭhas::An ascetic sect in ancient India, known for strict self-discipline and austerities, often associated with Mahāvīra, a contemporary of the Buddha. Followers were known for practicing restraint, rejecting possessions, and adhering to non-violence. [nigaṇṭha]| living on the Black Rock at the slope of Mount Isigili were practicing continuous standing, rejecting seats, and were experiencing painful, agonizing, and piercing feelings due to exertion.

The Buddha teaches that one could be far from him despite being physically close, and one could be near to him despite being physically far. When one sees the Dhamma, one sees the Buddha.

“Bhikkhus, even if a bhikkhu were to grab the corner of my robe and follow right behind me, step by step, but is with |intense craving::is greedy, covetous, with yearning, desiring, mentally obsessed [abhijjhālu]| for |sensual pleasures::sense desires, wishing, wanting, delighting in [kāma]|, |with intense lust::with strong desire [tibbasārāga]|, |with a malicious mind::evil-minded, hateful [byāpannacitta]|, |harboring ill will::having harmful intentions [paduṭṭhamanasaṅkappa]|, is |muddle-minded::forgetful, not mindful [muṭṭhassatī]|, |lacking clear awareness::inattentive [asampajāna]|, |distracted::with scattered attention, not collected, not well-composed [asamāhita]|, |with a wandering mind::with runaway thoughts, mentally out of control [vibbhantacitta]|, and |with unrestrained faculties::with uncontrolled senses bases, having a vulgar mind [pākatindriya]|; still, he is far from me and I am far from him. Why is that? Because that bhikkhu does not see the |Dhamma::teachings of the Buddha that point to the nature of reality, the ultimate truth [dhamma]|. Not seeing the Dhamma, he does not see me.

Ajita asks the Buddha a series of questions about the nature of the world, the currents of defilements, how to overcome name and form and the conduct of those who have comprehended the Dhamma.

“Everywhere the |currents::streams [sotā]| [of defilements] flow,” (said the venerable Ajita) “What is the |barrier::block, warding off [nivāraṇa]| to these currents? Tell me of the restraint of the currents, By what are the currents fully held back?”

The Buddha describes the four kinds of persons found existing in the world - those who go with the current, those who go against the current, those who are steady, and those who have crossed over, standing on the firm ground, arahants.

Whoever are unrestrained in |sensual pleasures::sense desires, wishing, wanting, delighting in [kāma]|, not free from |passion::intense desire, strong emotion, infatuation, obsession, lust [rāga]|, enjoying sensual pleasures here; They go again and again to birth and aging, overcome by |craving::wanting, yearning, longing, attachment, lit. thirst [taṇha]|, they go with the current.

The Buddha explains how he divided his thoughts into two kinds - 1) thoughts of sensual desire, ill will, and harm; and 2) thoughts of relinquishment, non-ill will, and non-harm. He explains how he abandoned harmful thoughts and cultivated wholesome thoughts, leading to the attainment of the four jhānas and the three knowledges.

Thus have I heard—At one time, the Blessed One was dwelling at Sāvatthi, in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s park. There, the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus thus: “Bhikkhus".

Dhammapada verses 320–333 highlight self-discipline, wisdom, and perseverance through the imagery of elephants. They highlight inner mastery over strength, the value of solitude over company of immature persons, and the importance of taming one’s mind. Honoring parents, cultivating virtue, and letting go of suffering lead to true ease.

A solitary life is better, there is no companionship with |immature persons::lacking in discernment or good sense, child-like in understanding [bāle]|; Let one walk alone, not partaking in |injurious actions::harmful, bad, potentially evil intention or action [pāpa]|, calm and unconcerned, like an elephant in the Mātaṅga forest.

Dhammapada verses 100-115 share the importance of one teaching that brings peace, the benefits of self-conquest, the value of honoring the awakened, and the importance of rousing of energy and recognizing impermanence.

Self-conquest is truly better, than conquering others; For one who has |mastered oneself::controlled oneself [attadanta]|, continuously dwells with restraint.

Dhammapada verses 256-272 emphasize the qualities that define true wisdom, nobility, and spiritual attainment. These verses critique superficial markers such as age, outward appearance, or rituals. The chapter underscores the importance of avoiding harm, evaluating actions with discernment, and not resting content until there is the complete elimination of mental defilements.

In whom there is |truth::accuracy, reliability [sacca]| and Dhamma, |non-violence::harmlessness [ahiṃsā]|, |restraint::self-control [saṁyama]|, and |discipline::taming [dama]|; That |steadfast one::firm, stable, wise [dhīra]|, who is |without defilements::free from impurities [vantamala]|, is rightly called ‘an elder.’

If both husband and wife wish to see one another in this very life and also to meet one another again in the next life, both should be alike in faith, ethical conduct, giving, and wisdom.

“Bhikkhus, if both husband and wife wish to see one another in this very life and to meet one another again in the next life, both should be |with the same faith::alike in confidence [samasaddha]|, |with the same ethical conduct::alike in virtue, morality [samasīlā]|, |with the same generosity::alike in giving [samacāga]|, and |with the same wisdom::alike in understanding [samapañña]|. Then they will see one another in this very life, and they will meet one another again in the next life.”

The Buddha shares the gradual training guidelines in the Dhamma and discipline with the Brahmin Moggallāna. It is through a gradual practice and gradual progression per these guidelines that one attains the ultimate goal of Nibbāna.

When, Brahmin, a bhikkhu is virtuous, restrained with the restraint of the Pātimokkha, endowed with conduct and resort, seeing danger in the slightest faults, and undertakes the training in the precepts, then the Tathāgata further trains him: ‘Come, bhikkhu, guard the doors of your sense faculties. Upon seeing a form with the eye, do not grasp at its signs or features. If the eye faculty remains unguarded, detrimental unwholesome mental states such as |covetousness::craving/desire/attachment with strong yearning and eagerness| and grief could overwhelm you. Practice restraint, guard the eye faculty, achieve mastery over it. In the same way, when hearing a sound with the ear, do not grasp at its signs or features. If the ear faculty remains unguarded, detrimental unwholesome mental states such as covetousness and grief could overwhelm you. Practice restraint, guard the ear faculty, achieve mastery over it. Similarly, when smelling an odor with the nose, do not grasp at its signs or features. If the nose faculty remains unguarded, detrimental unwholesome mental states such as covetousness and grief could overwhelm you. Practice restraint, guard the nose faculty, achieve mastery over it. Likewise, when tasting a flavor with the tongue, do not grasp at its signs or features. If the tongue faculty remains unguarded, detrimental unwholesome mental states such as covetousness and grief could overwhelm you. Practice restraint, guard the tongue faculty, achieve mastery over it. In the same manner, when feeling a tactile sensation with the body, do not grasp at its signs or features. If the body faculty remains unguarded, detrimental unwholesome mental states such as covetousness and grief could overwhelm you. Practice restraint, guard the body faculty, achieve mastery over it. Finally, when cognizing a mental object with the mind, do not grasp at its signs or features. If the mind faculty remains unguarded, detrimental unwholesome mental states such as covetousness and grief could overwhelm you. Practice restraint, guard the mind faculty, achieve mastery over it.’

The Buddha explains to King Pasenadi of Kosala how to recognize the character of another person.

Now, at that time, seven matted-hair ascetics, seven |Nigaṇṭhas::An ascetic sect in ancient India, known for strict self-discipline and austerities, often associated with Mahāvīra, a contemporary of the Buddha. Followers were known for practicing restraint, rejecting possessions, and adhering to non-violence. [nigaṇṭha]|, seven unclothed ascetics, seven single-cloth ascetics, and seven wanderers, with grown-out body hair and nails, carrying various kinds of equipment, were passing by not far from the Blessed One.

Dhammapada verses 334–359 depict craving as a binding force, likening it to a creeping vine, a trapped hare, and a spider’s web. The wise cut these bonds, free from passion, aversion, illusion, and longing, crossing beyond birth and aging. The highest gift is the Dhamma, surpassing all wealth and pleasures, and the destruction of craving is the greatest victory. Offerings to those free from defilements bear the greatest fruit.

This, the |steadfast::firm, stable, wise [dhīra]| ones call a strong bond, weighing one down, loose yet hard to escape; Having cut even this, they wander forth unconcerned, having abandoned the |comfort of sensual pleasures::enjoyment of sense desire [kāmasukha]|.

The Buddha teaches about integrity, gratitude, how one can repay one’s parents, action and non-action, who to make offerings to, persons who are internally or externally fettered, and the importance of right practice and well grasp of the Dhamma. The chapter gets its name from the [AN 2.36](/an2.36) discourse.

Furthermore, friends, a bhikkhu is virtuous, restrained by the restraint of the precepts, accomplished in conduct and field of activity, seeing danger in the slightest faults, and having undertaken the training rules, trains in them. He is engaged for the disenchantment, dispassion, and cessation of |sensual pleasures::sense desires, wishing, wanting, delighting in [kāma]|. He is engaged for the disenchantment, dispassion, and cessation of |existence::continued conditional existence, the karmically conditioned mode of being that leads to future rebirth [bhava]|. He is engaged for the |wearing away of craving::depletion of desire, extinction of longing [taṇhākkhaya]|. He is engaged for the |wearing away of greed::exhaustion of desire [lobhakkhaya]|. After breaking up the body, beyond death, he arises in a certain heavenly realm. Passing away from there, he becomes a non-returner, one who does not come back to this world. This is called, friends, the person who is fettered externally who becomes a non-returner, one who does not come back to this world.”

Bāhiya of the Bark Cloth realizes the Dhamma and attains final Nibbāna immediately after receiving a concise teaching from the Buddha.

'In what is |seen::observed, looked at [diṭṭha]|, there will merely be the seen, In what is |heard::to be told, to be informed of [suta]|, there will merely be the heard, In what is |sensed::noticed, smelled, tasted, felt or thought [muta]|, there will merely be the sensed, In what is |cognized::become aware of, known or understood [viññāta]|, there will merely be the cognized.’

The Buddha describes the two behaviors that lead to suffering and rebirth in hell if not abandoned.

This was said by the Blessed One, said by the Arahant, as I have heard:

The Buddha expresses an inspired utterance on the qualities that make one a true Brāhmaṇ.

Thus have I heard—At one time, the |Blessed One::Sublime One, Fortunate One, epithet of the Buddha [bhagavā]| was dwelling at |Uruvelā::name of a town in Magadha, lit. broad banks [uruvelā]| on the bank of the river Nerañjarā at the foot of the goatherd’s banyan tree, having just attained full awakening. Then, for seven days, the Blessed One sat in one posture experiencing the ease of liberation. At the end of those seven days, the Blessed One emerged from that |perfect peace of mind::stability of mind, stillness of mind [samādhi]|.

The Buddha provides a detailed and rigorous method for examining a Teacher. By discerning the teacher’s mental qualities, through prolonged observation, questioning, and learning directly, one gradually realizes a certain aspect of the teaching and builds unshakeable confidence in both the teacher and the teachings.

Now, bhikkhus, if others should ask that bhikkhu thus: ‘What are the venerable one’s reasons and what is his evidence whereby he says: “That venerable one is permanently restrained, not temporarily restrained. He abstains from sensual pleasures due to being free from passion through the wearing away of desire”?’ — answering rightly, that bhikkhu would answer thus: ‘Whether that venerable one dwells in the |Saṅgha::The community of monks and nuns practicing in line with the Buddha’s teachings. In the broader sense, this is the community of disciples who have realized the noble path and fruition through the Buddha’s teachings [saṅgha]| or alone, while some there are fortunate and some are unfortunate and some there who instruct groups, while some here are seen concerned about |worldly benefits::material gains [āmisa]| and some are |untainted by::not smeared by, not sullied by [anupalitta]| by worldly benefits, still that venerable one does not despise anyone because of that. And I have heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: “I am permanently restrained, not temporarily restrained, and I abstain from sensual pleasures due to being free from passion through the wearing away of desire.”’

Shortly after the Buddha’s final Nibbāna, Venerable Ānanda addresses the brahmins Gopaka Moggallāna and chief minister Vassakāra, clarifying that the Buddha appointed no successor, establishing the Dhamma itself as the refuge for the Saṅgha. He outlines ten qualities that make a bhikkhu worthy of veneration and distinguishes the meditations praised by the Buddha from those based on hindrances.

“But is there, sir Ānanda, any single bhikkhu who has been chosen by the |Saṅgha::The community of monks and nuns practicing in line with the Buddha’s teachings. In the broader sense, this is the community of disciples who have realized the noble path and fruition through the Buddha’s teachings [saṅgha]| and appointed by a number of elder bhikkhus thus: ‘He will be our refuge after the Blessed One has gone,’ to whom you now turn for guidance?”

The Buddha explains the eight causes and conditions that lead to the attainment, further development, growth, cultivation, and fulfillment of wisdom that pertains to the fundamentals of the spiritual life.

1 Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu lives depending on the Teacher, or on a certain fellow practitioner in the role of a teacher, where an acute |sense of right and wrong::sense of shame, moral conscience, modesty [hiri]| and |moral dread::fear of wrongdoing out of regard for others [ottappa]| are established in him, along with |affection::dearness, fondness [pema]| and |respect::reverence, esteem [gārava]| towards the teacher. This, bhikkhus, is the first cause, the first condition that leads to the attainment, further development, growth, cultivation, and fulfillment of wisdom that pertains to the fundamentals of the spiritual life.

Venerable Sāriputta explains the four kinds of persons based on their understanding of blemishes and blemish-free qualities. He uses the simile of a bronze bowl to illustrate the importance of understanding one’s blemishes and blemish-free qualities.

So too, friend, those persons who |lack in faith::are without confidence, are without conviction [assaddha]|, who have gone forth from the household life into homelessness not out of faith but for the sake of a livelihood, who are crafty, deceitful, treacherous, |restless::agitated, unbalanced, confused about what is right and wrong [uddhata]|, |arrogant::conceited, haughty [unnaḷa]|, |unsteady::wavering, fickle, inconsistent [capala]|, |talkative::big-mouthed [mukhara]|, |chatty::with scattered speech [vikiṇṇavāca]|, |with unguarded sense faculties::uncontrolled in senses, not having self-restraint [aguttadvāratā]|, lacking moderation in eating, not devoted to wakefulness, indifferent to the ascetic life, without keen respect for the training, |indulgent::excessive, living luxuriously, extravagant [bāhulika]|, |careless::loose, lethargic, lax [sāthalika]|, leaders in backsliding, neglectful of seclusion, |indolent::lazy, inactive person, indolent [kusītā]|, |weak in effort::low in energy, lacking in endurance [hīnavīriya]|, |muddle-minded::forgetful, not mindful [muṭṭhassatī]|, |lacking clear awareness::inattentive [asampajāna]|, |distracted::with scattered attention, not collected, not well-composed [asamāhita]|, |with a wandering mind::with runaway thoughts, mentally out of control [vibbhantacitta]|, |undiscerning::without wisdom [duppañña]|, uninformed—Venerable Sāriputta, with this exposition of the Dhamma, shapes them as if knowing their hearts with his heart.

The Buddha outlines a progressive training guideline for the bhikkhus to undertake in order to be recognized as ascetics and Brahmins. The Buddha also describes the abandonment of the five hindrances, the four jhānas, and the three knowledges using similes.

And bhikkhus, what more is there to be done? ‘We will guard the doors of our sense faculties. Upon seeing a form with the eye, we will not |grasp at its prominent features::focusing on its external characteristics [nimittaggāhī]| nor be |enticed by the details::focusing on the secondary characteristics [anubyañjanaggāhī]|. Since if we left the eye faculty unguarded, |unwholesome::unhealthy, unskillful, unbeneficial, or karmically unprofitable [akusala]| states of |craving and distress::greediness and dissatisfaction, wanting and unhappiness, craving and aversion [abhijjhā + domanassa]| might invade us, we will practice its restraint, guard the eye faculty, achieve restraint over the eye faculty. Upon hearing a sound with the ear ... upon smelling an odor with the nose ... upon tasting a flavor with the tongue ... upon touching a tangible object with the body ... upon cognizing a |mental object::a mind object such as a thought, idea, memory, intention, emotion, image, or concept arising within the mind that becomes the object of awareness, reflection, craving, or aversion [dhamma]| with the mind, we will not grasp at its prominent features nor be enticed by the details. Since if we left the mind faculty unguarded, unwholesome states of craving and distress might invade us, we will practice its restraint, guard the mind faculty, achieve restraint over the mind faculty.’ This is how, bhikkhus, you should train. However, bhikkhus, it might be that you think, ‘We are endowed with a sense of right and wrong and have fear of wrongdoing, our bodily conduct, verbal conduct, mental conduct, livelihood are pure, and we guard the doors of our sense faculties; this is enough, what we have done is enough, our purpose for going forth is achieved, there is nothing more to be done,’ and you might be satisfied with that much. I inform you, bhikkhus, I declare to you, bhikkhus: ‘Do not let the goal for which ascetics are rightfully ascetics pass you by, while there is still more to be done.’

If both husband and wife wish to see one another in this very life and also to meet one another again in the next life, both should be alike in faith, ethical conduct, giving, and wisdom.

Thus have I heard—At one time, the Blessed One was dwelling among the |Bhaggans::name of the people of Bhagga [bhaggā]| in |Crocodile Mountain::name of the capital city of Bhagga [susumāragira]|, in the Deer Park at Bhesakaḷā Grove.

Dhammapada verses 306–319 warn of the suffering that follows false speech, misconduct, and wrong view. The verses highlight the danger of negligence, hypocrisy, and slack effort in spiritual practice. Those who cultivate right view, ethical conduct, and firm effort attain a good destination, while those who embrace wrong views and harmful actions fall into misery.

One who speaks falsely falls into |hell::a place of intense suffering, lit. no good fortune [niraya]|, as does one who, having done wrong, claims, ‘I did not do it’; Both of them, having passed away, become alike, people of base actions in the hereafter.

The Buddha explains the difference between cultivation and lack of cultivation with regard to body and mind, and recounts his own journey to full awakening.

Then, Saccaka, the |Nigaṇṭha’s::An ascetic sect in ancient India, known for strict self-discipline and austerities, often associated with Mahāvīra, a contemporary of the Buddha. Followers were known for practicing restraint, rejecting possessions, and adhering to non-violence. [nigaṇṭha]| son, while walking and wandering, came to the hall with the peaked roof in the Great Forest. The venerable Ānanda saw him coming from distance and said to the Blessed One: “Venerable sir, here comes Saccaka the Nigaṇṭha’s son. He is a debater and a clever speaker, and is well regarded by many people. However, venerable sir, he wants to discredit the Buddha, discredit the Dhamma, and discredit the Saṅgha. It would be good if the Blessed One would sit down for a while out of compassion.” The Blessed One then sat on the prepared seat.

The Buddha teaches Venerable Pukkusāti the Dhamma of this person which constitutes of the six elements, six bases of contact, the eighteen explorations of mind, and is established in four ways.

Then Venerable Pukkusāti, realizing, “The Teacher has come to me, the Well-gone One has come to me, the Fully Awakened One has come to me,” rising from his seat, arranging his upper robe over one shoulder, prostrated himself with his head at the Blessed One’s feet and said: “I have made a mistake, venerable sir, in that I was lacking discernment, imprudent, and unskillful in addressing the Blessed One in such a familiar manner. May the Blessed One forgive my mistake for the sake of restraint in the future.”

Verses depicting the path to liberation through the central metaphor of a serpent shedding its skin. Each stanza illustrates how a bhikkhu abandons defilements like anger, passion, craving, and conceit, thereby casting off attachment to this world and the next.

One who |restrains::curbs, controls [vineti]| arisen anger, as the spread of snake venom is curbed with herbs; That bhikkhu abandons |this world and the next::the here and beyond, the near and far shore [orapāra]|, like a serpent casting off its old worn-out skin.

The Buddha uses the gradual purification of gold as a metaphor for mental cultivation through meditation. Just as a goldsmith removes coarse, medium, and subtle impurities until the gold is workable and radiant, a meditator abandons defilements in stages. This gradual refinement leads to deep collectedness of mind, forming the foundation for supernormal abilities and, ultimately, liberation.

“Bhikkhus, there are coarse |impurities::blemishes, flaws, imperfections [upakkilesā]| in raw gold: dirt, sand, gravel, and pebbles. The dirt rinser or his apprentice, having poured the gold ore into a trough, washes it, rinses it, and cleanses it thoroughly. When these [coarse impurities] are abandoned and eliminated, there remain medium-sized impurities in the raw gold: fine gravel and coarse sand. The dirt rinser or his apprentice washes it, rinses it, and cleanses it thoroughly. When these [medium-sized impurities] are abandoned and eliminated, there remain subtle impurities in the raw gold: fine sand and black dust. The dirt rinser or his apprentice washes it, rinses it, and cleanses it thoroughly. When these [subtle impurities] are abandoned and eliminated, there remains just the gold dust.

The Buddha explains how to cultivate the higher mind through similes whenever a harmful or unwholesome thought associated with desire, aversion, or delusion arises. Applying these five methods in a gradual sequence leads to abandoning of unwholesome thoughts, and to steadiness, calming, unification and collectedness of the mind.

Thus have I heard—At one time, the Blessed One was dwelling at Sāvatthi, in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s park. There, the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus: “Bhikkhus.”

The Buddha explains the three unwholesome roots and the three wholesome roots.

“Bhikkhus, there are these three unwholesome roots. What three? |Greed::a grasping mental quality of craving, possessiveness, or lustful wanting that clings to objects or experiences; it fuels attachment and obstructs renunciation and contentment [lobha]|, |aversion::ill will, hatred, hostility, mental attitude of rejection, fault-finding, resentful disapproval [dosa]|, and |illusion::delusion, hallucination, misapprehension, distorted view; that which fuels further confusion and doubt [moha]|.

The Buddha explains the four cases of taking up practices, based on whether they are pleasant or painful now and whether they ripen as suffering or a pleasant abiding in the future.

Thus have I heard—At one time, the Blessed One was dwelling at Sāvatthi, in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s park. There, the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus: “Bhikkhus.”

The Buddha starts out by advising the bhikkhus to eat only during the day, without having a meal at night, explaining the interplay of how pleasant, painful and neither-pleasant-nor-painful feelings can lead to furthering of unwholesome or wholesome states. He then shares on the seven kinds of persons and which kinds must act with diligence. The Buddha concludes by describing how final knowledge is attained gradually.

Thus have I heard—At one time, the Blessed One was wandering in the Kāsī region along with a large group of bhikkhus. There, the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus: